were there wolves in ukraine during wwii were there wolves in ukraine during wwii

We cannot forget this.'. Born in an obscure village in 1909, Bandera in the early 20th century. A German arrived alone on a motorcycle. [5] In Lithuanian mythology, an iron wolf appears before Grand Duke Gediminas, instructing him to build the city of Vilnius. At the beginning of 2016, the wolf population was roughly 300-350 individuals. Early last year, hunters there killed more than 200 wolvesan estimated 20% of the state's wolf populationin just 3 days, well above the permitted kill of 119 animals. The Scandinavian wolf populations owe their continued existence to neighbouring Finland's contiguity with the Republic of Karelia, which houses a large population of wolves. [56] All mention of wolf attacks was subsequently censored.[57]. Ukraine at a glance Main prey for wolves here are ungulates and livestock. The return of the wolf in Europe. During the military occupation of Ukraine by Nazi Germany, a number of Ukrainians initially chose to cooperate with the Nazis. By 1960, few wolves remained in Sweden, due to the use of snowmobiles in hunting them, with the last specimen being killed in 1966. While Moscow has continued to politicize the historic event, Kyiv has shifted toward an increasingly Western . [58] The wolf was held in high esteem by the Dacians, whose name was derived from the Gaulish Daoi, meaning "wolf people". The average size of a wolf's body is three to five feet long and their tails are usually one to two feet long. It was part of a broader Soviet famine (1931-34) that also caused mass starvation in the grain -growing regions of Soviet Russia and Kazakhstan. I saw a young Jew who brought corpses in a cart to the Jewish cemetery. While it is difficult to determine accuratetotals, Michael Haynes has estimated that the total number of deaths in the Soviet Union during the Second World War range from a staggering 26.6 million to 42.7 million (1). The legendary Russian General Pyotr Vrangel, who was known as the Black Baron for his rank within the nobility and the color of the Cossack uniform he wore, described the original Wolves Hundred as a band of marauders. 'The day we came to see they brought a lot of Jews here. Initially, the Germans were greeted as liberators by some of the Ukrainian populace. For weeks, the central government in Kiev, along with its allies in the U.S. and Europe, have been trying to find solid evidence of Russian boots on the ground in eastern Ukraine. 'They kept shooting them until nightfall. Absolutely bad ass. In March, during the Russian invasion of Crimea, thousands of Cossack fighters went with the Kremlins approval to aid the Russian military in the occupation of the peninsula. An estimated 1.5 million Ukrainian Jews perished, and over 800,000 were displaced to the east; at Baby Yar (Ukrainian: Babyn Yar) in Kyiv, nearly 34,000 were killed in just the first two days of massacre in the city. In the eastern Ukraine village Mykolaipillya, residents say that wolves are suspected of killing nine dogs in late February and early March. The world has learned two things in the year since the Russians invaded Ukraine in February 2021 the Russian army is no longer the fearsome juggernaut that expelled the invading Germans during . Wolves were extirpated in Slovakia during the first decade of the 20th century and, by the mid-20th century, could be found only in a few forested areas in eastern Poland. But they only lasted about five years in their original incarnation. It was once widespread throughout Eurasia prior to the Middle Ages. Many of these predator species were systematically eradicated and almost driven to extinction in the 19th and 20th . President Joe Biden has said that sending US combat troops to Ukraine to fight a war with Russia is off the table. 'They brought them to the edge of a pit and shot them. By some accounts, they were notably lacking in discipline. Ukraine, the "jewel" in the Nazi empire, would become a German colony administered by Heinrich Himmler's SS and police, Hermann Goring's economic plunderers, and a host of other satraps. 'Russia makes a point about Ukrainian nationalists because it is keen to divert suspicion from itself.'. But the actions of the Wolves Hundred, an armed formation fighting on the territory of a foreign state, do not seem to run counter to the interests of the Russian Federation. Germany's wolf population on the rise, new data shows; Germans divided over return of the wolves; Germany reveals costs . Most of all, they were known for their distinctive battle cry, which mimicked the howling of wolves in order to intimidate their enemies. But you could see the pit move, because some of them were still alive, Many people were requisitioned to dig the mass graves, to fill them, to bring the Jews in horse-drawn carts, to bring back their suits, to sell the suits, to put ashes on the blood, They stripped them naked, men and women. The illusion was quickly shattered. (2)The Holocaust by Bullets in Ukraine, The National WWII Museum | New Orleans, accessed March 15, 2022, https://www.nationalww2museum.org/war/articles/ukraine-holocaust. Use of this site constitutes acceptance of our, Digital [31][32][27], Wolf populations in Poland have increased to about 800900 individuals since being classified as a game species in 1976, now for more than two decades under legal protection in Annex V and II of the Habitats Directive. They say they got most of their weapons in April by storming Ukrainian police and security buildings and seizing their arsenals. For the first time, the scientists were also able to detect at least three reproducing packs in the Sudeten Mountains in the Czech-Polish border area. In those days, Ukraine a Texas-sized nation along the Black Sea to the west of Russiawas a part of the Soviet Union, then ruled by Stalin. For modern Ukraine the subject is difficult, too, because it means admitting a role for nationalists in colluding the Nazis, in part because some preferred a German occupation to Stalin's as the lesser of two evils. Origin His writings were widely accepted among Russian zoological circles, though he subsequently changed his stance when he was tasked with heading a special commission after World War II investigating wolf attacks throughout the Soviet Union, which had increased during the war years. Seventy years on from the end of the Second World War the full, shocking scale of the Nazi-inspired Holocaust in Ukraine is finally being revealed - thanks to pioneering work by a French Catholic priest to research the truth of the industrial-scale killing. In 1945 Ukraine became a charter member of the United Nations and subsequently became a signatory of peace treaties with Germanys wartime alliesItaly, Finland, Romania, Hungary, and Bulgaria. Historians estimate that soldiers killed hundreds of wolves during the war, and that the surviving wolves fled to escape a, carnage the like of which they had never encountered., Battle Halts While Troops Fight Wolves Oklahoma City Times, WW1 Wolves Attacked Soldiers War History Online, German and Russian Soldiers Banded Together to Fight Wolves Mental Floss. For every Cossack they kill, we will kill a hundred of their men, says one of the militants from the Wolves Hundred, who goes by the nickname Vodolaz, or Diver. It was early April and I was guiding a small natural history film crew on an island in Southeast Alaska. The louveterie was abolished after the French Revolution in 1789, but was re-established in 1814. Sweden didn't do anything during World War II, and now they're sending . One account from Rava Ruska was of a Nazi officer who spotted a young Jewish woman running out of the ghetto to buy butter at the market. 1945: 1 Million Ukrainian Jews Lost in WWII -World War II finally comes to a close. 'The Nazi killers hired these German companies to move the bodies to mass graves. [9] The howl of the Eurasian wolf is much more protracted and melodious than that of North American grey wolf subspecies, whose howls are louder and have a stronger emphasis on the first syllable. But you could see the pit move, because some of them were still alive. Though seemingly far-fetched, it turns out these claims are mostly accurate. According to an Al Jazeera report, Azov is a far-right all-volunteer infantry military unit, comprising of ultra-nationalists who are accused of harbouring neo-Nazi and white supremacist ideology. Temofis described the bloody execution as a 'production line' that was 'so well organised' that it only took a few minutes for everyone to be killed. According to the National WWII Museum, one in every four Jewish victims of the Holocaust was murdered in Ukraine. 'A German fired at her and her hair caught fire. In 1944, the commander of the Nazi SS, Heinrich Himmler, tapped Shkuro who had become a circus performer and part-time actor during his years in Berlin to become the head of the Cossack Cavalier Corps within the Nazi Wehrmacht. (See also Holocaust: The Einsatzgruppen.). [10], Many Eurasian wolf populations are forced to subsist largely on livestock and garbage in areas with dense human activity, though wild ungulates such as moose, red deer, roe deer and wild boar are still the most important food sources in Russia and the more mountainous regions of Eastern Europe. On 16 July 1941, Adolf Hitler convened top Nazi leaders at his headquarters in East Prussia to dictate how they would rule the newly occupied eastern territories. [17] The now extinct British wolves are known to have reached similar sizes to Arctic wolves. Olha told of how 15 German soldiers stood all around the pit where their captives were standing in groups. Soviet wolf populations reached a low around 1970, disappearing over much of European Russia.[26]. 'It is important to all times and all generations. 11:44 EST 06 May 2016. . 'It is true that the local population did cooperate with German Nazis in the occupied territories but the majority of them were Russian. He gave a sermon, to all those who were already there. Holodomor, man-made famine that convulsed the Soviet republic of Ukraine from 1932 to 1933, peaking in the late spring of 1933. "Running by myself. 'Three kilometres away, they killed them, people fell like flies. Males weigh between 25 and 35kg (55 and 77lb) and rarely 45kg (99lb). Far from supporting Ukrainian political aspirations, the Nazis in August attached Galicia administratively to Poland, returned Bukovina to Romania, and gave Romania control over the area between the Dniester and Southern Buh rivers as the province of Transnistria, with its capital at Odessa. 'Such attitude easily inspired pogroms as we had in Western Ukraine. Focusing on the Zhytomyr region and weaving together official German wartime records, diaries, memoirs, and personal interviews, Wendy Lower provides the most complete assessment available of German colonization and the Holocaust in Ukraine. (AP Photo/Efrem Lukatsky) KYIV, Ukraine Hundreds of Ukrainian nationalists held a . Dozens of Mr Codesal's sheep died after a wolf attack . As an irregular paramilitary outfit, they would not have needed direct orders from the Russian armed forces, let alone the sanction of the Russian parliament, to participate in this conflict. 'He rode around the village. Claim There are now some 2,500 Iberian wolves: around 2,000 are in Spain - the largest wolf population in western Europe - and the rest in Portugal. Its ears are higher and somewhat nearer to each other; their length exceeds the distance between the auditory opening and the eye. 'My father agree and Anna, the girl, hid with us all through the years of German rule. As of 2005, the total number of Swedish and Norwegian wolves was estimated to be at least 100, including 11 breeding pairs. After escaping over a wall, she travelled thousands of miles to Ukraine, Romania, Yugoslavia, Italy, France and back to Belgium. The grey wolf was present only in the eastern and northern parts of Finland by 1900, though its numbers increased after World War II. Wolf populations in Romania remained largely substantial, with an average of 2,800 wolves being killed annually out of a population of 4,600 from 1955 to 1965. Wolves in Slovakia, Ukraine, and Croatia may disperse into Hungary, where the lack of cover hinders the buildup of an autonomous population. But as horrific as they were, they were only three camp complexes in a system of more than 850 ghettos, concentration camps, forced-labor camps and extermination camps that the Nazis. People outlawed for committing a heinous crime were called wulfheafod or caput lupinum, 'wolf's head', since, in being excluded from the laws of man, they could be killed lawfully by anyone without fear of retribution. The autonomous hetman state and Sloboda Ukraine, Right Bank and western Ukraine until the Partitions of Poland, Ukraine under direct imperial Russian rule, Western Ukraine under the Habsburg monarchy, World War I and the struggle for independence, The New Economic Policy and Ukrainization, Western Ukraine under Soviet and Nazi rule, The Orange Revolution and the Yushchenko presidency, Russian invasion and annexation of Crimea, The Zelensky presidency and continued Russian aggression, The Zelensky-Trump phone call and the COVID-19 pandemic, The Russian buildup and the Battle of Kyiv, The Ukrainian refugee crisis and Russian war crimes, Match the Country with Its Hemisphere Quiz. I just made my eyes wide and said I dont know anything about anything, Vlad says of his interrogation. Because more than 700 cities and towns and 28,000 villages had been destroyed, 10 million people were left homeless. I wanted to understand why, and I discovered that 18,000 Jews were shot in this village, Rava Ruska.'. Desbois warned: 'A whole part of the genocide has not been declared. [51], According to documented data, man-eating (not rabid) wolves killed 111 people in Estonia in the years from 1804 to 1853, 108 of them were children, two men and one woman. A witness from Bakhiv, Temofis Ryzvanuk, then 14, told him how Germans beat the Jews with whips to force them to dig the holes into which they would be buried. It was a principal battleground on the Eastern Front and endured years of occupation, privation, and death. In many cases, the Jews were ordered to dig pits and then to strip naked before they were mown down by their murderers. This was despite government measures to keep breeding numbers viable. In 1929, as part of his plan to rapidly create a. , updated DO NOT SHARE ANY INFORMATION ABOUT MOVEMENTS, LOCATION OR IDENTIFICATION OF ANY OF THE UKRAINIAN ARMED FORCES. In Bavaria, the last wolf was killed in 1847, and had disappeared from the Rhine regions by 1899[20] and largely disappeared in Switzerland before the end of the 19th century. For EU member states, an application for a change in the listing of the wolf in the annexes to the Habitats Directive requires the approval of the Division for Large Carnivores in the European Commission, in which members of the LCIE have an advisory role. The Nazis were aided at times by auxiliary forces recruited from the local population. But they only lasted about five years in their original incarnation. 'They had barely got out when they fell and were pushed in and piled together, head to head like herrings. Organized persecution of wolves began in Yugoslavia in 1923, with the setting up of the Wolf Extermination Committee in Koevje, Slovenia. The entire family was transported to a Banff hospital for South Dakota drew all sorts of larger-than-life Old West characters prior to statehood. He added: 'There are certain stereotypes about participation of Ukrainian nationalists in pogroms in the early war years which were planted by Soviet history. He anchors the history of Hitler's Holocaust and Stalin's Terror in their time and place and provides a fresh account of the relationship between the two regimes. Some were buried in the unmarked plots while still alive. There are only the Russian borderlands, and the fact they became known as Ukraine after the [Bolshevik] Revolution, well, we intend to correct that mistake.. We didn't go too near, we stayed over there, but we children could still see everything.'. The Russians followed a . 'That night, the people covered it in, but the ground was still moving, for another two days. It was founded as a cavalry force in 1915 by Russian Colonel Andrei Shkuro, an ethnic Cossack and native of the region of Kuban. ', He said: 'There may be differences in calculating the number of Jewish population in Ukraine before the war, it is about including or not including the Eastern regions of Poland after Molotov-Ribbentrop pact, but in general we can say that at least a half - if not more - of all Ukrainian Jews were killed in Holocaust at our territory.'. [14] Adults from Russia measure 105160cm (4163in) in length, 8085cm (3133in) in shoulder height, and weigh on average 3250kg (71110lb), with a maximum weight of 6980kg (152176lb). He has estimated that there may be another 6,000 sites still to find, reported Deutsche Welle. When they had killed them, they put them beside each other, head to head, to pile in as many as possible, to save space. A guide to better understanding the current crisis, Live Updates on the Current Situation in Ukraine, Contemporary Ukraine in Revolution and Conflict (2004-2014), Ukraine Since Independence (1991-Present), Ukraine and the Second World War (1939-1945), Ukraine during the Russian Revolution and Russian Civil War (1917-1922), Ukraine before the First World War (pre-1914), Identity, Language, and Religion in Ukraine, Films to Help Better Understand the Russia-Ukraine War, Race, Racism, and Racial Identity in Eastern Bloc, Harvest of Despair: Life and Death in Ukraine under Nazi Rule, Nazi Empire-Building and the Holocaust in Ukraine, Unlikely Allies: Nazi German and Ukrainian Nationalist Collaboration in the General Government during World War II, Bloodlands: Europe between Hitler and Stalin, http://ezproxy.lib.uconn.edu/login?url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.3138/j.ctt15jvz0h.3, http://ezproxy.lib.uconn.edu/login?url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.3138/j.ctt15jvxg8.6, https://www.ushmm.org/information/exhibitions/online-exhibitions/special-focus/ukraine, https://uconn-storrs.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01UCT_STORRS/vjr89s/cdi_crossref_primary_10_1080_0966813032000055895, https://www.nationalww2museum.org/war/articles/ukraine-holocaust, Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial 4.0 International License. levage et loups en France: historique, bilan et pistes de solution. The voracious animals were attracted to the prolific and gruesome scavenging available in the warzone, attacking soldiers and civilians alike. Parroting the Kremlins propaganda, the men of the Wolves Hundred insist that they have come to fight the fascists who have taken power in Ukraine. [26] The situation in Ukraine was not so different to what was going on in other Soviet regions which were occupied by Nazis - everywhere they relied on local nationalists, who often blamed Jews for supporting the "Moscow-Bolshevik regime", as they said at the time. 06:12 EST 24 Aug 2015 The conflict in Ukraine has been to a large degree about history and how to interpret it. [16] In Italian wolves, excepting the tail, body lengths range from 110 to 148cm, while shoulder height is 5070cm. [42][43][44] (See also Favourable conservation status of wolves in Europe). In February of 1917, a dispatch from Berlin noted large packs of wolves moving into populated areas of the German Empire from the forests of Lithuania and Volhynia. He even killed Jews who still had their clothes on, he couldn't wait he was so crazed with rage. On this occasion, some 1,500 Jews were marched to the huge pit, dug earlier by other Jews who had been killed with explosives. An all-time low was reached in 1967, when the population was reduced to 1,550 animals. Nobody should believe that the Canadian ruling elite's defence of pro-Nazi war criminals is a thing of the past. Although protected, many wolves are illegally killed in Greece annually, and their future is uncertain. In another case he recounted how 'an unspeakably cruel German soldier grabbed a Jewish woman's child from her'. Some 32,000 were buried around Rava Ruska and in neighbouring towns like Bakhiv, where for years farmers have dug up human remains - and in so doing found mass graves - as they ploughed the fields. A Zoo in Ukraine: Update. The Sami extirpated wolves in northern Sweden in organized drives. The wolvesnowhere to be found quite so large and powerful as in Russiawere desperate in their hunger and regardless of danger. They were wiped out in Germany during the 19th century. On Ukraine, Russia has tried to link the country to Nazism, particularly those who have led it since a pro-Russian leadership was toppled in 2014. The majority of pre-Christian wolf-related traditions in Eurasia were rooted in Hittite mythology,[4] with wolves featuring prominently in Indo-European cultures, sometimes as deity figures. The Russian paramilitary group known as the Wolves' Hundred, with their commander Evgeny Ponomaryov in the foreground, block the road near the checkpoint not far from Slavyansk, in eastern Ukraine, April 20, 2014, Brazil's Guide to Not Getting Mugged at the World Cup, The 25 Defining Works of the Black Renaissance. We wont just kill them. Ukraine's president, Volodymyr Zelenskiy, has praised his people's bravery and resolve on the 50th day of war, calling Russia's invasion "absurd" and "suicidal" in his latest . The Germans had automatic rifles and when they got close to the pit they shot them.'. 'They also put chlorine, that allowed them to lower the level of the pit by one metre, and the blood stopped running'. (2003), "Wolves and humans", in, Boitani, L. (2003), "Wolf Conservation and Recovery", in. The wolf has been a protected animal in Romania since 1996, although the law is not enforced. Myths, lies and old wives tales loom large in the outdoor pursuits. Wolves vary in size depending on where they live. Historian Mikhail Tyaglyy said the truth about the Holocaust in Ukraine must be taught to young people. Just as in the days of the czars, the command structure of the modern-day Cossacks in Russia now leads directly to Russias Commander in Chief, who holds the exclusive right to award the rank of Cossack general. Somewhat better was the situation of Ukrainians in Galicia, where restricted cultural, civic, and relief activities were permitted under centralized control. Depending on how one counts, Ukraine was home to the largest Jewish community in Europe on the eve of the Nazi invasion, with some 2.7 million Jews, equalling about 5 percent of the population. There must have been 60 or 70. [7][8] Its fur is relatively short and coarse,[3] and is generally of a tawny colour, with white on the throat that barely extends to the cheeks. Billionaire hedge fund manager Bill Ackman has warned that World War III has "likely started already" amid Russia's invasion of Ukraine. 'The bullet ricocheted off his knee and he bled everywhere. From there it only got worse, peaking during 1932 and 33 when starvation struck Ukraine. Battle Halts While Troops Fight Wolves Oklahoma City Times He ordered her to be stripped naked, and demanded the trader smear her with the butter after which he decreed her beaten to death with sticks. A Zoo in Ukraine: Update Kharkiv's Feldman Ecopark Zoo continues its struggle to survive. The detachment of Colonel Shkuro mostly roamed behind the front lines, getting drunk and pillaging. Their stomping grounds during World War I were mostly in southern Russia, modern-day Ukraine, Belarus and Moldova. Since the fall of the Soviet Union, continent-wide extermination of wolves has ceased, and wolf populations have increased to about 25,00030,000 animals throughout the former Soviet Union,[26] an increase of about 150%.[38]. Their stomping grounds during World War I were mostly in southern Russia, modern-day Ukraine, Belarus and Moldova. Despite their fearsome reputation, wolves are rarely aggressive towards humans. The Russian and German soldiers temporarily stopped being enemies once they found a common foe. This story was adapted from a piece originally written by Ellen de Wolf of WWF Netherlands. They say they are volunteers driven by the ideals of their Cossack brotherhood Russian imperialism, service to the sovereign and the heavenly mandate of the Russian Orthodox Church. Their clothes were ransacked for cash and valuables. Parties of Russian and German scouts met recently and were hotly engaged in a skirmish when a large pack of wolves dashed on the scene and attacked the wounded, reported a 1917 Oklahoma City Times article. The committee was successful in reducing wolf numbers in the Dinaric Alps. Barring a few exceptions, the worst elements of the officer corps joined them, Vrangel wrote in his memoirs. Back then our men would hit the Austrians so hard they would abandon their cannons and run.. She was a Jew and she brought her 10 year old girl and asked my father to let her stay with us. : r/ukraine. Desbois said: 'He never spoke. In the past month, their campaign has revealed a new kind of Russian warfare, one waged through the use of militant nationalist groups acting as proxies. [23] The last free-living wolf to be killed on the soil of present-day Germany before 1945 was the so-called "Tiger of Sabrodt", which was shot near Hoyerswerda, Lusatia (then Lower Silesia), in 1904. In. He fired at everybody, he was crazy.'. [34] In 2012, an estimated 14 wolf packs were living in Germany (mostly in the east) and a pack with pups has been sighted within 24km (15mi) of Berlin. [54] Numerous attacks occurred in Germany during the 17th century after the Thirty Years' War, though the majority probably involved rabid wolves. In 2015, Vladimir Katriuk, a Ukrainian and member of the SS during World War II . Mozhaev, whom TIME profiled last month, says he was allowed to pass through Russian border control in March despite being a wanted fugitive in his homeland for making death threats. One person said a German arrived alone on a motorcycle. The cloth was white and the star black. Wolves in Finland are protected throughout the country, and can be hunted only with specific permission. In England, wolf persecution was enforced by legislation, and the last wolf was killed in the early 16th century during the reign of Henry VII. I was 6 years old." For two children, sex and age were not specified. In the east, its range overlaps with populations in Lithuania, Belarus, Ukraine, and Slovakia. Some 2.2 million people were taken from Ukraine to Germany as slave labourers (Ostarbeiter, or eastern workers). Some Ukrainians initially welcomed the Nazi invaders. The opened fire on the helpless Jews who dropped back-first into the pits. And we watched. Early in 1942 began the formation of nationalist partisan units in Volhynia, and later in Galicia, that became known as the Ukrainian Insurgent Army (Ukrainska Povstanska Armiia; UPA). Both sides agreed to a cease fire if the wolves interrupted another battle. An estimated 528 wolves resided in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem as of 2015. W. InEncyclopedia of Ukraine: Volume V: St-Z, 677732. Access the newest seasons of MeatEater, save content, and join in discussions with the Crew and others in the MeatEater community. The species was exterminated twice in Crimea, once after the Russian Civil War, and again after World War II. University of Toronto Press, 1993.http://ezproxy.lib.uconn.edu/login?url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.3138/j.ctt15jvxg8.6. [26] As of December 2021, the Swedish-Norwegian wolf seems to be extinct and any wolf individuals found in these countries appear to be solely Finland wolves. [60] Tengrism places high importance on the wolf, as when howling, it is thought to be praying to Tengri, thus making it the only creature other than man to worship a deity.[61]. His best friend at school - a Jew - suddenly vanished, presumably shot by the Nazis. Around 2,000 mass graves of Jewish victims have been located where men, women and children were shot and buried by the Germans and their collaborators. 'I always say, the Holocaust was not a tsunami. Locals hypothesized that war efforts displaced the wolves, so the canines started seeking out new hunting grounds. It was a tragedy, a great tragedy. Transcarpathia, which had reverted from Hungary to Czechoslovakia in 1944, was ceded to Ukraine in 1945 by a Czech-Soviet government agreement. But Nazis did not trust mass killing of Jews to locals. University of Toronto Press, 1988.http://ezproxy.lib.uconn.edu/login?url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.3138/j.ctt15jvz0h.3.